Comprehensive Clinical Update on Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management, and Emerging Therapeutics

Epidemiology & Inheritance Pattern – Beyond Basic Genetics Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is a severe, progressive, X-linked recessive myopathy caused by mutations in the DMD gene (Xp21.2), encoding the 427-kDa…

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Comprehensive Clinical Update on Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger’s Disease): Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Evidence-Based Management

Authored for the practicing physician—updated to reflect 2023–2024 guidelines and peer-reviewed literature I. Introduction & Definition Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), or Buerger’s disease, is a rare, non-atherosclerotic, inflammatory occlusive vasculopathy primarily…

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Thyroid Eye Disease (TED): A Comprehensive, Evidence-Based Update for Clinicians

Definition and Epidemiology Thyroid eye disease (TED), also known as Graves’ orbitopathy (GO) or thyroid-associated orbitopathy (TAO), is an organ-specific autoimmune disorder characterized by inflammation, fibrosis, and expansion of the…

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