Category: Medicine
Congenital Heart Disease
Overview Congenital heart disease (CHD) is the presence of one or more structural heart defects at birth. Congenital denotes that the condition is present at birth. Congenital cardiac disease in adults and children can alter how the heart pumps blood. There are several distinct varieties of congenital cardiac abnormalities. This article examines adult congenital cardiac…
How to Pass MRCP PACES Exam
MRCP PACES MRCP PACES is a very difficult practical examination because the overall pass rate is below 50%. I passed PACES on my first attempt and got 157 out of 172. If being an IMG and non-native English speaker I can do this then there is no reason for you not to be able to…
Small Cell Lung Carcinoma
SCLC Cancer is not a singular illness. There are numerous forms of cancer. However, all cancers begin when a group of cells in the body proliferate uncontrollably. Cancer cells continue to proliferate and might force out healthy cells. This makes it difficult for the body to function properly. Cancer can begin in any part of…
Epoetin Alfa: Clinical Overview and Current Evidence (2024 Update)
Epoetin alfa is a recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) that stimulates erythropoiesis. It is used in the management of anemia associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD), chemotherapy, zidovudine therapy in HIV, and certain surgical procedures. As a biosynthetic analog of endogenous erythropoietin, it plays a critical role in red blood cell production. Indications and Approved Uses…
Apremilast: An Evidence-Based Clinical Overview (2025)
Apremilast is an orally administered small molecule approved for the treatment of immune-mediated inflammatory conditions. It is classified as a selective phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibitor, with anti-inflammatory properties beneficial in conditions such as psoriatic arthritis (PsA), moderate to severe plaque psoriasis, and oral ulcers associated with Behçet’s disease. Indications Apremilast is FDA-approved for the following…
Nivolumab (Opdivo®): An Evidence-Based Overview (2025)
Nivolumab is a fully human IgG4 monoclonal antibody that targets the programmed death-1 (PD-1) receptor. By modulating immune checkpoints, nivolumab enhances the body’s antitumor immune response and has transformed the therapeutic landscape for various advanced malignancies. Mechanism of Action The PD-1 receptor, expressed on activated T cells, binds its ligands PD-L1 and PD-L2, typically upregulated…
Cabozantinib (Cabometyx®, Cometriq®): A 2025 Clinical Overview
Cabozantinib is an oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) used in the treatment of several advanced and metastatic cancers. It inhibits multiple pathways involved in tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis, making it an important agent in targeted cancer therapy. Mechanism of Action Cabozantinib is a multi-kinase inhibitor that targets and inhibits several receptor tyrosine kinases implicated…
Keytruda (Pembrolizumab): A Comprehensive 2025 Clinical Overview
Keytruda® (generic: pembrolizumab) is a humanized monoclonal antibody that works as an immune checkpoint inhibitor, targeting PD-1 (programmed death-1) to restore anti-tumor immune responses. First approved by the FDA in 2014, it has since become a cornerstone in modern oncology across a wide array of solid and hematologic malignancies. 🧬 Mechanism of Action Pembrolizumab blocks…
Ipilimumab – Indications, Dosage, and Side Effects
What is Ipilimumab? Ipilimumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody that targets CTLA-4 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4), a key immune checkpoint receptor that downregulates immune activation. By blocking CTLA-4, ipilimumab enhances T-cell activation and proliferation, promoting an immune response against cancer cells. It is primarily used in combination with nivolumab (anti-PD-1 antibody) for treating various advanced…
Rosuvastatin – Indications, Dosage, and Side Effects
Introduction Rosuvastatin is a widely prescribed lipid-lowering agent belonging to the statin class. It is primarily used to improve lipid profiles by lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and reducing triglycerides, thereby reducing cardiovascular risk. Pharmacological Mechanism Rosuvastatin functions as a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in hepatic…